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Pottery: Clay That Rubs Shoulders With Gold
By Mona Shams
 The art of pottery and ceramics is considered to be one of the finest arts known by humanity. It has existed in all civilizations and cultures since the dawn of history.
Archeologists and anthropologists are interested in pottery because it is both an artform and a craft that humans have practiced – worldwide throughout the ages – while producing things that were necessary in their daily lives.
Pottery has a rich history that warrants extensive study, particularly in view of the progress of the ceramic industry. Throughout its long journey, the traditions and customs of its makers as well as their beliefs about life on this earth and the afterlife have been manifested in pottery.
Looking at Islamic arts, we see that the making of pottery and ceramics has been one of the most significant crafts practiced by artists since the advent of Islam in many different countries – reflecting the concepts found in Islamic civilizations in many ways. As the wisdom behind the nature of Islam discourages the use of expensive materials like gold and silver in artwork, Muslim artists, particularly the Arabs, have engaged in the art extensively, producing pottery and ceramics of very high quality. Not only that - they actually created a technique that produces a “metallic glint,” unique to Islamic pottery, that resembles gold and silver, allowing them to turn out ceramic pieces of extreme elegance and beauty.
We will now touch on the stages of the development of the art of pottery in the Arab world. As is well-known, Arab culture has extended across many regions, so that pieces of pottery produced in many different countries bear the influences of Arab culture, with their minor differences reflecting the particular country or region in which they were crafted.
The production of pottery is related to several aspects of daily life – fulfilling both public and private needs. Muslim artists have made ceramic tiles of various shapes to line and decorate altars and walls. They have also fashioned cups and glasses, plates and bowls, bottles and water containers, and other items such as lamps from clay.
Islamic pottery and ceramics are uniquely shaped, baked and decorated. Following is a discussion of some of the types of pottery and ceramics that have been produced in Muslim countries:
I. Ceramics with raised designs: Decorative designs on the surface of this type of pottery are raised. This group is divided into the following catetories:
A. The designs are added onto the even surface of the ceramic. Common in Iraq during the Abbaside era, its most important centers were Sousa and Samara. Abbaside artists were influenced by the artistic traditions that had prevailed in that area before the emergence of Islam. They reached the degree of perfection in their art in the 12th century A.D.
B. Attributed to Syrian artists of the 9th and 10th centuries A.D., the same techniques as those in Iraq are used, but bearing the influence of local traditions from pre-Islamic Syria.
C. Attributed to Sultanabad, this category dates back to the 13th and 14th
centuries A.D. and comprises documented pieces. The techniques and themes of decoration are reminiscent of the era of the Seljuks.
D. This type has elevated designs, covered with gilting, and paintings over the
Glazing. Attributed to Kashan, its pieces date back to the 13th and 14th centuries A.D.
II. Ceramics with engraved designs: The production of this type of ceramics began in the Abbaside Era. It comprises the following categories:
A. Has designs of geometric or floral shapes that are inserted with stamps while
the clay was still “soft.” Pieces of this category have been found in Samara
and Al Fustat.
B. The surfaces around the decorative designs have been removed by engraving, leaving the designs elevated and covered with glazing while the engraving has uncovered the original clay. Known as “lime ceramics,” was produced in Garos and Zanjan, and most of its pieces date back to the 11th and 12th centuries A.D.
C. Attributed to the Fatimid and early Ayubite eras between the 11th and 13th
centuries A.D., pieces of this type have been in Egypt.
D. The surfaces around the designs have been engraved while the designs, comprised of floral, faunal and mythical elements, were covered with black glazing. These pieces were common in Iran in the 12th and 13th centuries A.D.
E. Engraved pieces where both the designs and surfaces were covered with blue glazing. These pieces were common in Iran in the 11th and 12th centuries A.D.
F. Engraved and encircled ceramics where the entire piece, including the designs and their surrounding surfaces, was covered with transparent glazing. Some of the pieces of this category, common in Iran between the 11th and 13 centuries AD, were painted white, blue or green.
G. White thin-walled containers, made in imitation of the Chinese ceramics attributed to the Tang Era, that were common in Iran in particular during the period from the 10th to the 12th centuries A.D. They are characterized by fragile pieces from when the surfaces around the decorative designs were engraved, leaving the designs elevated over the surface.
III. Ceramics with engravings under their glazing: Common in many Muslim
regions, they comprise the following categories:
A. The pieces were engraved under the glazing and bore colored spots and
lines. Considered as the oldest type in the Islamic Era and influenced by the
Chinese ceramics attributed to the Tang Era, these pieces were
concentrated in Iran in the 10th and 11th centuries A.D.
B. The pieces carried very strongly pronounced multi-colored designs of birds
and animals. It is attributed to Iran in the 12th century.
C. Pieces found at Al Fustat, Egypt where the clay was engraved under the
glazing. The pieces of this category are very much like those with metallic glint.
D. Pieces that were engraved under the glazing and carried calligraphic
designs from the Memluk Era; it is attributed to Egypt in the 14th century.
Ceramics That Could Compete With Gold and Silver
The most important characteristic of Islamic ceramics was the metallic glint technique. Muslim artists were keen on crafting high-quality ceramics to replace gold and silver containers yet bring pleasure to those who could afford them.
This type of ceramic first appeared in the Abbaside Era as proven by the large number of metallic-glint pieces found in excavations at Samara and Al Fustat. Pieces have also been unearthed in Iran and Andalusia dating back to the 10th century A.D. resembling those attributed to the Abbaside Era.
Scholars have differed on the place where metallic-glint ceramics were first made. Some say that they first emerged in Egypt. The reason for this difference is that this sort of ceramics was common in all Muslim countries by the 9th and 10th centuries A.D. Most likely, it first appeared in Iraq, which, as the seat of the Abbaside Caliphate, was the center of culture at that time.
How were metallic-glint ceramics made?
Typically, after the clay was molded into the desired shape, it was covered with a glazing paint that contained metallic oxides. Alternately, the piece might first be covered with glazing and then painted with the oxides. The oxides were then reduced in a furnace, producing carbon that united with the oxides in the glazing to make a very thin layer of metal over the piece. Depending on the chemical composition of the glazing, the metallic hue on the piece may be golden, silver or a shade of red or brown.
A second technique for producing metallic-glint ceramics involved the artists converting some metals into liquids with which they drew designs over the glazing after the first baking of the pieces, and then baked the pieces a second time at lower temperatures without exposing them to carbon.
Diversity of Designs on Ceramics
Many kinds of designs were created on the metallic-glint ceramics. These designs can be divided into the following categories:
I. Purely geometric shapes, both simple and complex, that were evenly distributed over the surfaces of the piece.
II. Heavily decorated floral designs and surfaces around them.
III. Designs depicting humans, animals or birds with other elements complementing them.
Among the common techniques involving the use of different materials in Islamic pottery making were the engraving of large areas and the drilling of holes in the pieces. Muslim artists excelled in the manner in which they determined which areas to engrave and which not to. We can see this clearly in mosharabies, the engraved areas form geometric shapes that complement the designs. We can also see it in plaster moulds where geometric shapes have been drilled to make “windows” that are then covered with colored glass.
The windows built inside the necks of ollas (water containers) showed exquisite and masterfully executed designs. The purpose of these windows was to regulate the flow of water from the olla when drinking, and to keep insects away from the water. The clay from which ancient ollas were made was not different from that used today; however, the ancient ollas were unique because of the exquisite designs inside their necks. Although they were made of cheap clay, their wonderfully decorated windows gave them a high artistic value.
Nice phrases, such as, “He who drinks will be pleased” and “He who fears God wins,” were then engraved into the necks of the ollas. Sometimes, natural shapes were also engraved, including palm trees, birds, animals, fish and human forms.
In the making of the pottery, Muslim artists were able to observe the principles of Islam while developing an art for producing excellent ceramics that were completely different from those of other cultures in both beauty and function.
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